Sudan's Civil Wars

By Abigail Forster

Sudan has been a region long plagued with civil wars and violent conflicts. The current civil war in Sudan broke out in April 2023 following a coup in October 2021 led by General Abdel Fattah al-Burhan, head of the armed forces and the country’s de facto President, and his deputy General Mohammed Hamdan Dagalo.

After successfully overthrowing the government, the two sides turned against one another, both suspicious that the other would not relinquish their power in the move towards civilian rule. As a result, on April 15, 2023, Sudan's third civil war broke out. Since then, Sudan has faced a massive humanitarian crisis. 

A country plagued by divisions and political instability

The current civil war in Sudan is a direct consequence of previous conflicts in the region between the North and South, which have left the country troubled by political instability and poverty.

Following Sudan’s independence from Britain in 1956, the country has struggled to maintain lasting peace and cooperation between the Arab-Muslim majority in the North and the predominantly Christian and animist population in the South. A census conducted shortly after independence showed the region was home to 572 tribes, speaking 114 recognised languages.

First Sudanese Civil War

Sudan’s First Civil War began in 1955, whilst it was still under British colonial rule, and saw conflict between the Arab-Muslims in the North and the African Christian South over deep-rooted ethnic, religious, and cultural divisions.

It began after the Southern Corps of the Sudanese army revolted against Northern officers. The war, to some extent, had been perpetuated by Britain’s attempts to reduce Islamic influence in the South. British aims had been to maintain and cultivate Southern identity, however ultimately caused mistrust and inequality between the two sides.

The conflict, which had resulted in an estimated 500,000 to 1 million deaths, eventually ended in 1972 after President Gaafar Muhammad al-Nimeiri granted South Sudan autonomy under the Addis Ababa Agreement (February 27, 1972). It established the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region, which practiced a multi-party democracy.

However, peace was short lived, and 10 years later the country experienced its Second Civil War.

Second Sudanese Civil War

The Second Sudanese Civil War began in 1983 after Gaafar Niemeiri, President of Sudan, announced in January 1982 that a referendum would be held in the South on the issue of decentralisation – but only in the Equatoria Province.

This was viewed by some Southern politicians as an attempt to divide the South, and by doing so strengthen the North, and claimed that it went against the 1972 autonomy agreement that had ended the First Civil War. These ‘dissident’ politicians were subsequently arrested on charges of forming an illegal political organisation.

On September 8, 1983, the government implemented Islamic (Sharia) law, much to the objection of the, predominantly non-Muslim, South, worsening hostility and violence between the two sides.

In May 1984, the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), led by John Garang, declared its intent to overthrow Nimeiri and replace his government with a socialist government.

In 1997 in an attempt to ease tensions and end the war, the government agreed to end Islamic law and begin talks on Southern autonomy. This resulted in the Sudan Peace Agreement on April 21, 1997. By January 2002, a tentative ceasefire had been agreed, negotiated under U.S. mediation.

Eventually, on January 9, 2005, despite ongoing War in Darfur, the government and the SPLA signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in Nairobi, officially ending the 22-year civil war. The CPA established southern autonomy, called for elections to be held within 4 years, and a new constitution to be drafted within 6 years. It also created a transnational power-sharing government under which Garang would serve as vice President.

By the end of the war, over 2 million had been killed as a result of combat, starvation, and disease and 4 million had been displaced.

War in Darfur

War in Darfur began in February 2003 between the government, under President Omar al-Bashir, and Southern rebel groups.

The Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) accused the government of political and economic marginalisation of Sudan’s non-Arab populations. The government responded by arming and supporting local Arab militias (who became known as Janjaweed), who carried out a campaign of ethnic cleansing of non-Arab ethnic groups.

On July 30, 2005, shortly after being sworn in as vice President, John Garang died in a helicopter crash. His followers believed the crash had been orchestrated by the government and in retaliation led riots that killed over 130 people.

The violence of the War in Darfur resulted in a major humanitarian catastrophe. An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 were killed between 2003 and 2005, with millions displaced into refugee camps in Darfur and Chad.

In 2004 the U.S. government, via Secretary of State Colin Powell, officially labelled the killings a genocide and in 2005 the United Nations Security Council referred it to the International Criminal Court. In June 2005 the ICC opened an investigation into allegations of genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity committed in Darfur since July 1, 2002. There have since been 6 cases brought forward, and 7 warrants of arrest.

In January 2011, as a first step towards more permanent peace, a referendum was held on South Sudanese independence. The referendum passed with a majority of 98.83% and South Sudan became an independent country in July 2011.

From South Sudan's independence to a Third Civil War

From late 2018 to early 2019, a revolution took place in Sudan against President Omar al-Bashir, after he attempted to change the constitution to allow him to run for a third term. The military removed him from power after mass protests, suspended the constitution and declared a state of emergency that lasted for 3 months. A military government was thus imposed, which remained in power until the coup by General al-Burhan and General Dagalo in 2021.